---

By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals in place of the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond (Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe.

Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy.

Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations were the surgical part of Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis), the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi (Rhazes) and the Qanun of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Banu Musa's works, Al-Biruni's commentry on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept "Algorithm" is named), the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali. John of Seville under the patronage of Raymond translated several works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Faraghni.

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). <

>From "Jews, God and History;" chapter: "History Travels to Mecca."

....

"The Bedouin Arabs were the sand dwellers, living in the desert; the
Quraish Arabs dwelt along the coastal areas, where they had established
trading villages at the end points of caravan routes. Here the Bedouin
scame to exchange the luxuries ROBBED from caravans for the
necessities of life. But it was not until the end of the first century
A.D., when the Jews began to arrive, that commerce and industry began
to hum,cities to flourish, and art to proliferate. The trickle of Jews
into Arabia beginning after 70 AD reached the proportions of a flood in
the fifth and sixth centuries when a power struggle between the
Sassanid and Byzanine empires squeezed Jews out of Syria and Palestine
into Arabia..."

"Here in their new homeland in Arabia the Jews introduced handicrafts,
the goldsmith's arts, and the date palm, which became to the
Mohammadans later what the potato became to the Irish. Here they
founded Medina. Here they helped the Quraish convert their villages
into cities. With their great numbers and twenty five hundred years of
experience, the JEws gave Mecca a cosmopolitan air..."

....skip life of Muhammad, etc...

"The Mohammedans intellectually divided the people in their empire into
two groups, those interested and those not interested in science. In
the first they included Jews, Greeks, and Persians; in the second they
lumped Chinese, Turks and Christians. .."
..."The Jews, on the other hand, produced a Golden Age during this
period, generating great names in philosophy, medicine, science,
mathematics, linguistics, - in every area of human endeavor except art,
which Jews did not enter until the Modern Age..."

"One of the earliest and most prominent of these Jewish intellectuals
was Ibn Daud, who not only translated Hebrew, Greek and Arabic
literature into Latin, but also introduced Arabic numerals and the
concept of the "zero" into European mathematics."







He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals
in place of the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially
Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond
(Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century Toledo
became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and
science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the
scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of
Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were
Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of
Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early
translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent
translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages
of Europe.
>
> Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy.
>
> Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations were the surgical part of Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis), the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi (Rhazes) and the Qanun of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Banu Musa's works, Al-Biruni's commentry on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept "Algorithm" is named), the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali. John of Seville under the patronage of Raymond translated several works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Faraghni.

---

I recognize Jewish contribution, not Zionist and Bastards who lived and were mixed with Nazi and thieves. Most of European Jews hardly Jews. I know what a Jew look like, been to Yemen, I been to Iran, I been to Nablus, I been to many places where real Jew resides, and their appearances hardly match yours. I would say Yemen still have the Original Jews. Iran is the second place where you can tell they are Jews.

SJ

---

>From wikipedia:

The Nature of the Golden Age

Though Al Andalus (Moorish Iberia) was clearly a key center of Jewish
life during the early Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one
of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities, there is no clear
scholarly consensus over whether the relationship between Jews and
Muslims was truly a paragon of interfaith relations, or whether it was
simply similar to the treatment Jews received elsewhere at the same
time.

Mark Cohen, in his landmark 1995 book on the subject, Under Crescent
and Cross, discusses how the idea of the Golden Age was bolstered in
the twentieth century by two sources. On one side, Jewish scholars like
Heinrich Graetz used the story of the Golden Age to draw contrasts to
the increasing oppression of Jews in mainly Christian Eastern Europe,
eventually leading to the Holocaust. On the other side, Arab scholars
who wanted to show that modern State of Israel shattered a previously
existing harmony between Jews and Arabs in Palestine under the Ottoman
rule pointed to the supposed utopia of the Golden Age as an example of
previous relationships. Cohen argues that the utopian Golden Age image
is overstated, but that the "countermyth" of Jewish persecution is also
an oversimplification.

Birth of the Golden Age

The Christian Visigoths of Hispania persecuted the Jews severely, so
naturally the Jews welcomed the Muslim conquerors in the 8th century.
The conquered cities of Córdoba, Málaga, Granada, Seville, and Toledo
were briefly placed in charge of the Jewish inhabitants, who had been
armed by the Moorish invaders. The victors removed the restrictions
which had oppressed the Jews so heavily, and granted them full
religious liberty, requiring them only to pay the tribute of one golden
dinar per capita.

A period of tolerance dawned for the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula,
whose number had been considerably augmented by those who had followed
the Arab and mainly Berber conquerors. Starting especially after 912,
with the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II the Jews
prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the Caliphate of
Cordoba, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry,
especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the
prosperity of the country. Southern Al-Ándalus (namely the modern
Spanish region of Andalusia) became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of
other parts. 'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai
ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben
Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. During his term of power,
the scholar Moses ben Enoch was appointed rabbi of Córdoba, and as a
consequence al-Andalus became the center of Talmudic study, and
Córdoba the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

This was a time of partial Jewish autonomy. As "dhimmis",or "protected
non-Muslims", Jews in the Islamic world paid the jizya, which was
administered separately from the zakat paid by Muslims. The jizya has
been viewed variously as a poll tax, as payment for non-conscription in
the military, or as a tribute. Jews were made to wear identifying
clothing. Nevertheless, Jews had their own legal system and social
services. Monotheist religions of the people of the book were tolerated
but conspicuously public displays of faith, such as bells and
processions, were discouraged. [1]

End of the Golden Age

With the death of Al-Hakam II Ibn Abd-ar-Rahman in 976, the Caliphate
began to dissolve, and the position of the Jews became more precarious
under the various smaller Kingdoms. The first major persecution
occurred on Dec. 30, 1066 when the Jews were expelled from Granada and
fifteen hundred families were killed when they did not leave. This was
the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula while under Islamic
rule.
Manuscript page by Maimonides, one of the greatest Jewish scholars of
Al Andalus, born in Córdoba. Arabic language in Hebrew letters
Enlarge
Manuscript page by Maimonides, one of the greatest Jewish scholars of
Al Andalus, born in Córdoba. Arabic language in Hebrew letters

A possible date of the end of the Golden Age might be in 1090 with the
invasion of the Almoravides, a puritan Muslim sect from Morocco. Even
under the Almoravides, some Jews prospered (although far more so under
Ali III, than under his father Yusuf ibn Tashfin). Among those who held
the title of "vizier" or "nasi" in Almoravide times were the poet and
physician Abu Ayyub Solomon ibn al-Mu'allam, Abraham ibn Meïr ibn
Kamnial, Abu Isaac ibn Muhajar, and Solomon ibn Farusal (although
Solomon was murdered May 2, 1108). However, the Almoravides were ousted
in 1148, to be replaced by the even more puritanical Almohades. Under
the reign of the Almohades, the Jews were forced to accept the Islamic
faith; the conquerors confiscated their property and took their wives
and children, many of whom were sold as slaves. The most famous Jewish
educational institutions were closed, and synagogues everywhere
destroyed.

During these successive waves of narrowly interpreted Islam, many
Jewish and even Muslim scholars left the Muslim-controlled portion of
Iberia for the then still relatively tolerant city of Toledo, which had
been reconquered in 1085 by Christian forces.

Several of them were involved in what became known as the School of
Toledo, which produced some of the first translations into Latin of
works from the Arab world, notably the works of Averroes and of the
Jewish poet and philosopher Solomon Ibn Gabirol, known in Iberia as
Avicebrón. Jews joined the armies of Alfonso VI of Castile and as many
as 40,000 joined in the fight against the Almoravides, who also had
large numbers of Jewish troops in their armies.

Even after the "Golden Age" had ended, the Iberian Jewish community
remained the most important in the world (especially with the decline
of the Academies of Babylonia). Scholars such as Maimonides, born in
1135, were major figures in Judaism, although Maimonides himself
complained about the treatment of the Jews under Muslim rule. The
Jewish presence in Iberia ended with the edict of expulsion by
Christian Spain in 1492 and a similar decree by Christian Portugal in
1497.

Notable figures

* Abu al-Fadl ibn Hasda, philosopher, vizier at Zaragosa
* Abu Ruiz ibn Dahri fought in the war against the Almohades.
* Amram ben Isaac ibn Shalbib, scholar and diplomat in the service
of Alfonso VI of Castile
* Bishop Bodo-Eleazar; according to the Jewish Encyclopedia, "a
convert to Judaism ... [who]... went to Córdoba, where he is said to
have endeavored to win proselytes for Judaism from among the Spanish
Christians."
* Dunash ben Labrat
* Isaac ibn Albalia, astronomer and rabbi at Granada
* Jekuthiel ibn Hasan, king's minister at Zaragosa, fell from
favor, executed
* Joseph ibn Hasdai, poet, father of Abu al-Fadl ibn Hasdai
* Joseph ibn Migas, diplomat for Granada
* Maimonides, rabbi, physician, and philosopher
* Menahem ben Saruk
* Solomon Ibn Gabirol, poet and philosopher
* Moses ben Enoch
* Yehuda Halevi, poet and philosopher
* Abraham ibn Ezra, rabbi and poet
* Moses ibn Ezra, philosopher and poet
* Benjamin of Tudela, traveler and explorer
* Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela, king's minister and poet
* Hasdai ibn Shaprut, royal physician and statesman

References

* Mark Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages
1995 ISBN 0-691-01082-X
* Joel Kraemer, "Comparing Crescent and Cross," The Journal of
Religion, Vol. 77, No. 3. (Jul., 1997), pp. 449-454. (Book review)
* ↑ Fred J. Hill et al, A History of the Islamic World 2003 ISBN
0-7818-1015-9, p.73

External links

* The Golden Age of Arab-Jewish Coexistence
* Jewish Encyclopedia article on Spain
* Excerpt from Farewell Espana: The World of the Sephardim
Remembered by Howard M. Sachar, at MyJewishLearning
* The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus an interview between Banning
Eyre (Afropop Worldwide) and Dwight Reynolds, Associate Professor in
the Department of Religious Studies, Director of the Center for Middle
East Studies, and Chair of Islamic and Near Eastern Studies at the
University of California
* Medieval Hebrew Poetry

Retrieved from
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula"

Categories: Jewish Spanish history | Judeo-Islamic topics | Golden ages
| History of Spain | History of Portugali.

---

Hay, Jagrbuz, did the Jews built the pyramids in Egypt and created the Arabic Numerals. Was these guys name Moshe, or Levy? What else the Jews left out.

SJ

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe.
==========================================================================================
This explains why the Muslim fanatics today want to bring the world
back one thousand years. They thrive on Dark Ages and Neanderthals.

Iamhere

---

Iamhere wrote:
> Salah Jafar wrote:
> > By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe.
> ==========================================================================================
> This explains why the Muslim fanatics today want to bring the world
> back one thousand years. They thrive on Dark Ages and Neanderthals.
>
> Iamhere

He cannot name a SINGLE contribution of the Arabs to civilization prior
to the coming of the Jews to Arabia after 70AD. By that time, whereas
the books of the Bible had already been translated into Greek, the
Arabs didn't even have a written language. At best, he can only point
tto the Middle Ages for anything whatsoever, long after they're having
learned everything basic from Jews, Christians, and others. In fact,
many Bedouins even say that it was Jews who introduced the camel into
Arabia.

---

Did you also wrote the Quran for us?

SJ

---

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JDIjoLkYpQ


Salah Jafar wrote:
> By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals in place of the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond (Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe.
>
> Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy.
>
> Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations were the surgical part of Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis), the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi (Rhazes) and the Qanun of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Banu Musa's works, Al-Biruni's commentry on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept "Algorithm" is named), the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali. John of Seville under the patronage of Raymond translated several works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Faraghni.

---

You are quite the comedian today!
Salah Jafar wrote:
> By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals in place of the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond (Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe.
>
> Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy.
>
> Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations were the surgical part of Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis), the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi (Rhazes) and the Qanun of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Banu Musa's works, Al-Biruni's commentry on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept "Algorithm" is named), the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali. John of Seville under the patronage of Raymond translated several works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Faraghni.

---

I am a comedian, I will make Debwhora pussy smiles.

SJ

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims)
>was recognized in Europe.

Salad Jar fails to credit his post to Dr A Zahoor, author of the
article TRANSLATORS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
(Copyright 1992, 1997, All Rights Reserved), available on the ISLAMIC
CIVILIZATION website.

Dr Zahoor fails to note by whom -- and, more importantly, according to
whom -- was his alleged "intellectual superiority of the Arabs
(Muslims)" recognized in Europe. And in which parts of Europe? He also
fails to note that much of this alleged "intellectual superiority" was
due to the Jews living in those parts of the Muslim world were any
"intellectual superiority" was noted.

Salad Jar, posing as Dr A Zahoor, posted from the latter's article:
>The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II
>(Gerbert, d. 1003 AD).

Nonsense. Gerbert d'Aurillac went to Spain and studied at Barcelona.
Barcelona had been Christian since Charlemagne's forces seized it in
801, after which it became the capital of the Christian Marca
Hispanica. It was still Christian when Almanzor of Cordoba sacked it in
976 and 985, and famed for its education. Gerbert, later the first
French pope, is thought to studied in Cordoba, capital of the Umayyad
caliphate, then the foremost city in the world.

The caliph was al-Hakam II, son of the great Abd ar-Rahman III, and the
caliphate was at peace with its Christian neighbors, who paid the
caliph tribute. Al Hakam was a semi-invalid, whose personal library
included some 4,000 books, and who expanded Corboba's library to over
400,000 volumes, the greatest in the world at the time (sacked by the
fanatic Almoravids in 1100). Under al Hakam, while Gerbert would have
been studying there, massive efforts were made to translate Latin and
Greek works into Arabic, under a committee of Muslim, Jewish, and
Christian scholars. On the military front, al-Hakam's generals were
fighting off Norman invaders, and struggling with the enemy Fatimids of
Egypt.

Under Hakam II, the caliphate of Cordoba reached its zenith as a world
centre of science, culture, and the arts. Widespread toleration of
Christians and Jews existed in the caliphate, which saw industrial
progress, agricultural advances, development of huge paper mills. Under
Rahman III and his son, the Arab aristocracy was almost extinguished,
and replaced by a large, well-to-do middle class. Cordoba the capital
was the greatest intellectual centre in the Islamic world, certainly of
Europe, and the largest city in the world; its schools of medicine,
mathematics, science, and philosophy were pre-eminent, as were its
schools of poetry and music. Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, court
physician and chief minister to Rahman III and Hakam II, was the patron
of Jewish scholars under Moses ben Enoch, rabbi of Cordoba, which
became the centre of Talmudic study. The height of Islamic learning was
achieved by Isn Rushd (Averroes), philopsopher, physician, commentator
on Plato and Aristotle, and master of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish
scholars who traveled from Europe and the Middle East to study.

This oasis of Islamic, as well as Jewish and Christian, civilization
was utlimately destroyed by internal feuding between the Umayyads and
Almanzor's heirs, which led to the invasions of the fanatic Almoravids
of North Africa, and, after them, the even more fanatic Almohades.

Salad Jar, posing as Dr A Zahoor, posted from the latter's article:
>He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals
>in place of the clumsy Roman ones.

Gerbert is one of those credited with introducing "Arab" astronomy and
mathematics (which was actually Iranian and Hindu) and "Arabic"
numerals (which were Hindu numerals), but the Iranian mathematician
al-Khwarizimi had already introduced Hindu numerals and calculation
methods over a century earlier, and others, Jews as well as Christians,
are credited with introducing Hindu numerals to Europe.

Not to discredit Gerbert's achievements; his vast education was such
that he was suspected by some as being a sorcer schooled in the Dark
Arts and in league with Evil Muslims and Evil Jooz in Spain.

Salad Jar, posing as Dr A Zahoor, posted from the latter's article:
>He was followed by many,

Not too many. After the death of Hakam II in 976, rule of the caliphate
was seized by the grand vizer al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (Almanzor), a
former law student and brilliant administrator for the useless Hisham
II, upon whose death the caliphate degenerated into civil war, then
broke apart into numerous petty taifas. Thereafter, the intellectual
impetus passed largely to Christian Toledo.

>especially Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century,

Constantinus Africanus (fl 11thC), a Christian of Muslim-ruled
Carthage, was educated at the famous Medical School of Salerno and
aided in the translation into Latin of Arabic texts of the treatises of
ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates and Galen.

>and Bishop Raymond (Raimundo) in the twelfth century.

Probably Raimundo, Archbishop of Toledo, founder (1127-1152) and head
of the Christian school of Toledo, which translated major scientific,
mathematical, pharmacological, botanical and medical works into Latin
from Hebrew and Arabic. Most of the translators were Jews, followed by
Christians, monks and scholars from western Europe. Translators
personally supported by Raimundo included Iohannes Avendehut Hispanus,
the Jewish translator of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Domingo Gundisalvo
Cuellar, Gerard of Cremona (Ptolemy's Almagest), and Mark of Toledo
(earliest translation of the Quran into Latin).

>As early as
>eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission
>of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number
>of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who
>flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona
>(1117- 1187) and John of Seville.

Toledo became a centre for the transmission of texts in Arabic only
after its conquest in 1085 by Alfonso VI of Castile, 'imperator totius
Hispaniae', by which time the caliphate of Cordoba was in ruins. Prior
thereto, Toledo's emir had been a tributary of Castile since the
invasion of Ferdinand I of Castile in 1062. So-called "Arabic
(Islamic)" culture and science was transmitted to Europe largely by
Jewish translators of ancient texts, and then by the Jews expelled from
Islamic Spain. John of Seville (fl 1135-1153), translator of Arabic
texts on math, astronomy, and philosophy into Latin and the vernacular,
was, as his name indicates, from Seville; however, his work was
accomplished in Ourense in Christian Galicia. Gerard of Cremona was one
of the scholars of the School of Toledo founded by Archibishop Raimundo
of Toledo after the Christian reconquest.

>Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath,

Adelard, the "first English scientist" (fl c 1116 -1142), studied at
Tours, spent seven years traveling through North Africa and Asia Minor,
translated, among other ancient treatises, Euclid's Elements into Latin
from an Arabic translation from Greek, but is chiefly famous for his
work Natural Questions, based on his Arabic studies, mainly the works
of the great Iranian mathematician, al Khwarizmi, as well as his own
original thoughts.

>Robert of Chester,

Spent ten years in Segovia c 1140-1150, translated the works of the
Iranian mathematicians al Khwarizmi and Geber (Abu Musa Jabir ibn
Hayyan), then left, due to the wars between the Chrisians and the
Muslims, the wars between the Christian kingdoms, the wars between the
Muslim taifas, and the wars with the invading Almohades.

>Michael Scot,

Michael Scot (1175-c1232) of Durham studied mathematics, philosophy,
and astrology at Oxford and Paris, traveled through Italy to Christian
Toledo, where he learned Arabic, was influenced by the works of the
Iranian philosopher and physician ibn Sina (Avicenna) and ibn Rushd
(Averroes) the Andalusian philosopher and mathematician, and made
translations of the works of and commentaries on Aristotle at the court
of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Jerusalem.

>Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli.

Who?

>The early translations were primarily into Latin
>and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done
>from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe.

And many of the translators were Jews.

> Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the
>Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter.
>They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand,
>Latinized the Arabic words.

So? Iranian and other Islamic translators Arabized Greek and Latin
words. SOP of the day.

>Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi,

Domingo Gundisalvo Cuellar, Archdeacon of Segovia, one of the scholars
supported by Raimundo, founder of the Toledo school.

>and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David,
>the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a
>large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy.

The School of Toledo, founded after the demise of Islamic Spain's
Golden Age, translated into Latin Arabic and Hebrew translations of
ancient Greek treatises.

> Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo,

?
Hunayn ibn Ishaq al Ibadi (809-873) was an Iranian Christian physician
and headed the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. He translated the works of
ancient authors such as Galen, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates,
Dioscorides, Ptolemy, and the Septuagint from Greek into Syriac and
Arabic.

>translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different
>subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to
>Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available
>Arabic works into Latin.

He went to Toledo around 1144 chiefly so that he could obtain the
Arabic text of Ptolemy's Almagest, as no Latin translation was
available in Italy.

>Gerard remained there for the rest of
>his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's
>name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations
>were the surgical part of Al-Tasrif of Al-zahravi (Albucasis),
>the Kitab al-Mansuri of AL-Razi (Rhazes) and the Qanun of
>Ibn Sina (Avicenna),

Gerard is credited with the translation of Avicenna, but he wasn't the
translator.

>Banu Musa's works, Al-Biruni's commentry
>on Al-Khawarizmi (after whom concept "Algorithm" is named),
>the tables of Jabir b. Aflah and Zarqali. John of Seville under
>the patronage of Raymond translated several works of Avicenna,
<Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Faraghni.

Regarding the "Arabic" culture of Spain, it was "Arabic" only in that
its primary language was Arabic. The 7th century "Arab" conquerors
were, in fact, a mixed bag of Berbers (with an appreciable amount of
Vandal ancestry), Iranians, and Yemenites. Later, Syrians and Egyptians
arrived. All were periodically at each others' throats, and instigated,
at one time or another, revolts against the primacy and exclusivity of
Arab Muslims. The converse was also true, with violent outbreaks by
Arab Muslims -- notably in Cordoba in 805 and 817 and Toledo in 814 --
against the equal footing accorded non-Arab Muslims, as well as against
the toleration extended to Christians and Jews; they were expelled by
the emir Abd ar-Rahman II in 822 (whereupon they invaded and conquered
Crete). Intermarriages were frequent; for example, Alfonso I of the
Asturias married a Muslim noblewoman before the Islamic conquest of
Spain was a century old, as did Fortún Garcés, king of Navarre, whose
wife was a lady of the Syrian Banu Qasi; the wife of Abdallah "the
Pious" of Cordoba was a Navarrese princess; their grandson was the
renowned Abd ar Rahman III, himself the son of a Frankish slave, whose
son and successor, the great al Hakam II, was married to a Basque
Christian. In short, the "Arabic" culture of Islamic Spain was that of
a mongrel society, and that was its strength.

Deborah

---

Salad Jar wrote:
> Did you also wrote the Quran for us?
> SJ

No, Jews did. It was originally called The Bible for Dummies.

Deborah

---

The whole world existence is thankful to the Jews for everything. they invented everything including the wheel and a loaf of bread. Jews did that and Jews did this. everything evolve around the Jews. I say go fuck yourself Debowhora, you are nothing more than a trailer trash bitch.

SJ

---

"Salah Jafar" <codeman128@yahoo.com> wrote in message
news:boc0h.10863$LA.9756@trnddc06...
The whole world existence is thankful to the Jews for everything. they
invented everything including the wheel and a loaf of bread. Jews did
that and Jews did this. everything evolve around the Jews. I say go
fuck yourself Debowhora, you are nothing more than a trailer trash
bitch.

BW: To disciriminate against bitches=escortgirls/prostitutes
and against people that live in trailers show BAD ETHICS

To generalize is to be a fool. said William Blake

Some truths about Jews may be included in the mudslinging , but why
not be scientific, honest, exact, precise?????

I think that trailer people are trailblazers and un-snobbish

---

If you live in this country, trailer trash are inbred people. That means uncle Buck, fucks marry Lou, his sister. Brother Elmer, fucks his ant Joe Allen. I like to curse the Swedish, but my in-laws are Swedes.
SJ

---

<dsharavi@gmail.com> wrote in message
news:1161908237.773208.64910@f16g2000cwb.googlegroups.com...
> Salad Jar wrote:
>> Did you also wrote the Quran for us?
>> SJ
>
> No, Jews did. It was originally called The Bible for Dummies.

Half of Koran is Old Testament
Half is hatespeach about torturing infidels now and in hell

Moslem IMAMS promote rape by lying that girls that show their beauty
has guilt.
Weils hide beauty but mature civilized men resist temptation by girls
being NATURAL and positively LAZY. Laziness invented wheel and
elecrical light and being naked is worth giving Nobel prize for,

since it is a crime with no victims

Monkeys that go crazy when they see female bare beauty, that is not
their property ,
should be thrown back to the Middle East

---

Al Nakba wrote:
> You are quite the comedian today!

Salad Jar didn't even write it. It's an article by A Zahoor titled
TRANSLATORS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES (Copyright 1992,
1997, All Rights Reserved), available on the ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
website.

Deborah

---

<dsharavi@gmail.com> wrote in message
news:1161908559.297937.154660@m73g2000cwd.googlegroups.com...
> Al Nakba wrote:
>> You are quite the comedian today!
>
> Salad Jar didn't even write it. It's an article by A Zahoor titled
> TRANSLATORS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES (Copyright
> 1992,
> 1997, All Rights Reserved), available on the ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
> website.

You claim intellectual superiority of Arabs
Only translation and conservation is prooved and the is not creative

Even non-readers can copy and nonproducers can conserve
One or two Arab TRANSPORTERS of the Indian ZERO may have understood
but snobbishnes and ownership of camels is the big contribution of the
Middle East to our civilization.
Seven Day Week is about astrological superstation - same as Stone
Henge - we alså were superstitious. ridiculous and snobbish but we
cured ourselves and invented the steam engine and found sea passage to
USA and India and invented the polymer plastic material and almost
reached Chinese creativity

West and China invented vaccination but only West was stupid enough to
make it compulsory - the Confuzian cultures accept healthy Darwinism
as far as immunology and therefor the Japanese are extremely healthy.

FAr East understood that cleanlines is a ritual - we often believe it
prevents disease tsk tsk
Stone age surgery had good succes rate though no desinfection
chemicals

---

Never claimed I wrote it you cheap street walker Mott.

SJ

---

You walking on the fighting side of me.
Salah Jafar wrote:
> If you live in this country, trailer trash are inbred people. That means uncle Buck, fucks marry Lou, his sister. Brother Elmer, fucks his ant Joe Allen. I like to curse the Swedish, but my in-laws are Swedes.
> SJ

---

Howdy cousin Yochi. Uncle Emory say Hay now. a Pig like you must been raised a country boy.
SJ

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> I recognize Jewish contribution, not Zionist and Bastards who lived and were mixed with Nazi and thieves. Most of European Jews hardly Jews. I know what a Jew look like, been to Yemen, I been to Iran, I been to Nablus, I been to many places where real Jew resides, and their appearances hardly match yours. I would say Yemen still have the Original Jews. Iran is the second place where you can tell they are Jews.
>
> SJ
==========================================================================================
I know a place you not been. High school.

Iamhere

---

http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4946110250157218995&q=conspiracy+of+silence

---

Right , I never been to high school, I was given special courses by your mother in the art of fucking her.

SJ

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> The whole world existence is thankful to the Jews for everything. they invented everything including the wheel and a loaf of bread. Jews did that and Jews did this. everything evolve around the Jews. I say go fuck yourself Debowhora, you are nothing more than a trailer trash bitch.
>
> SJ
==========================================================================================
Good God, is this Jafar guy loathesome!

Iamhere

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> The whole world existence is thankful to the Jews for everything. they invented everything including the wheel and a loaf of bread. Jews did that and Jews did this. everything evolve around the Jews. I say go fuck yourself Debowhora, you are nothing more than a trailer trash bitch.
>
> SJ
===========================================================================================
Good God man,is there not a drop of decency in you?

Iamhere

---

Salah Jafar wrote:
> The whole world existence is thankful to the Jews for everything. they invented everything including the wheel and a loaf of bread. Jews did that and Jews did this. everything evolve around the Jews. I say go fuck yourself Debowhora, you are nothing more than a trailer trash bitch.
>
> SJ
===========================================================================================
Good God man,is there not a drop of decency in you?

Iamhere

---

On 27 Oct 2006 14:45:16 -0700, dotcom457@yahoo.com wrote:

>
>Salah Jafar trolled:
<quoted trolling flushed>
>===========================================================================================
>Good God man,is there not a drop of decency in you?
>

Don't feed the troll, killfile it.

---

Salad Jar wrote:
> I am a comedian, I will make Debwhora pussy smiles.
> SJ

Been practicing with your mother's qus, have you, Salad Jar?

Deborah

---

No, my mother pussy is untouchable, only Jewish pussy like my kind of Jokes.

SJ

---

I ain't your cousin loser.
Salah Jafar wrote:
> Howdy cousin Yochi. Uncle Emory say Hay now. a Pig like you must been raised a country boy.
> SJ